The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that converts nitrogen into various forms throughout the ecosystem. Nitrogen is an essential element for life that organisms use in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Yet, while the atmosphere is rich in nitrogen (about 78%), this nitrogen (N2) is largely inaccessible to cells in its gaseous form. Through the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen undergoes various transformations. Living organisms use nitrogen and ultimately return it back to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle Processes
Several processes play a role in the nitrogen cycle, including both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. These processes include nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle, converting inert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into a bio-available form, ammonia (NH3).
- Biological Fixation: Some types of bacteria convert nitrogen gas into ammonia. In symbiotic associations, bacteria like Rhizobium colonize the root nodules of legumes, converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. Similarly, non-symbiotic bacteria like Azotobacter and cyanobacteria, especially those in aquatic systems, perform nitrogen fixation. The enzyme central to this process is nitrogenase, which facilitates the reduction of N2.
- Physical Fixation: Atmospheric processes, such as lightning, also convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen oxides (NOx). These oxides subsequently react with water, forming nitrates that can be absorbed by plants.
Assimilation
In assimilation, plants take up ammonia and incorporate nitrogen into amino acids, nucleic acids, and other vital organic molecules. Plants predominantly assimilate nitrogen through their roots in the form of nitrates (NO3–) and ammonium ions (NH4+).
Ammonification
As organisms die and waste products accumulate, decomposers—specifically fungi and certain types of bacteria—break down the organic nitrogen within these materials and convert it back into ammonia. This process ensures that nitrogen trapped within organic matter returns to the soil in a form that plants can reuse.
Nitrification
This aerobic process involves the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.
- First, bacteria like Nitrosomonas oxidize ammonia to nitrite (NO2–).
- Following this, Nitrobacter takes over, oxidizing the nitrite to nitrate (NO3–). Nitrification is a critical step of the nitrogen cycle because most plants predominantly utilize nitrates for their nitrogen needs.
Denitrification
Denitrification is essentially the reverse of nitrogen fixation. Here, the nitrates in the soil transform back into atmospheric nitrogen. Anaerobic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium, reduce nitrates and nitrites to gaseous nitrogen, releasing it back into the atmosphere. This process prevents the accumulation of excess nitrates in terrestrial systems.
Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction
Unlike denitrification, this process doesn’t return nitrogen to the atmosphere. Instead, certain bacteria reduce nitrates to nitrites or ammonia for energy, especially under anaerobic conditions. However, the nitrogen remains in the ecosystem.
Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation (Anammox)
In an anaerobic environment, specialized bacteria like Brocadia oxidize ammonia using nitrite as the electron acceptor, producing nitrogen gas. Anammox is particularly relevant in aquatic systems, contributing significantly to the removal of fixed nitrogen from the oceans.
Marine Nitrogen Cycle
The marine environment offers unique niches for nitrogen transformation. While many processes mirror their terrestrial counterparts, the deep-sea regions offer unique conditions, such as oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) where processes like anammox and denitrification are prevalent. The ocean floor acts as a nitrogen sink in that organic debris falls and deposits as sediments. Over time, compression converts these particles into sedimentary rock. Geological uplifting eventually returns these rocks to the surface, where weathering releases the nitrogen compounds back into the cycle.
Human Impacts and Consequences
Human activities significantly impact the nitrogen cycle. From agriculture to industry, anthropogenic nitrogen dramatically increases the flux of reactive nitrogen in the environment.
- Agriculture: The synthesis and widespread use of nitrogen-based fertilizers increase crop yields, but at the cost of nitrogen runoff that causes eutrophication and acidification in aquatic systems. Inorganic nitrogen in water systems also poses toxicity issues for humans and other animals.
- Burning of Fossil Fuels: Burning fossil fuels releases NOx into the atmosphere, which returns to the earth’s surface as acid rain or contribute to smog and greenhouse gas accumulation.
- Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Deforestation alters the natural nitrogen balance, leading to soil degradation and other ecological shifts.
The repercussions of these impacts are multi-fold, affecting air and water quality, disrupting natural ecosystems, and posing direct and indirect health risks to humans.
References
- Camargoa, Julio A.; Alonso, Álvaro (2006). “Ecological and toxicological effects of inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global assessment”. Environment International. 32 (6): 831–849. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2006.05.002
- Erisman, J. W.; Galloway, J. N.; et al. (2013). “Consequences of human modification of the global nitrogen cycle”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1621): 20130116. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0116
- Fowler, David; Coyle, Mhairi; et al. (2013). “The global nitrogen cycle in the twenty-first century”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 368 (1621): 20130164. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0164
- Galloway, J. N.; Townsend, A. R.; et al. (2008). “Transformation of the Nitrogen Cycle: Recent Trends, Questions, and Potential Solutions”. Science. 320 (5878): 889–892. doi:10.1126/science.1136674
- Voss, M.; Bange, H. W.; et al. (2013). “The marine nitrogen cycle: recent discoveries, uncertainties and the potential relevance of climate change”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1621): 20130121. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0121